In the previous chapters we have focused on individual voices in the Book of Mormon. But how do these voices intertwine and harmonize with each other? After all, as Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, “All minds quote. Old and new make the warp and woof of every moment. There is no thread that is not a twist of these two strands. By necessity, by proclivity, and by delight, we all quote.”[1]

Emerson here likens quotations to the work of a weaver. Just as a weaver intertwines strands of yarn (“warp and woof”) into a beautiful tapestry, authors often construct their work by interlacing concepts and words first uttered by their predecessors. Literary critic Roland Barthes uses the same metaphor as Emerson, writing that text is “entirely woven of quotations, references, echoes: cultural languages . . . , antecedent or contemporary, which traverse it through and through, in a vast stereophony.”[2]

Intertextuality, a word coined by Julia Kristeva,[3] has been defined in different ways by various scholars. In a broad sense it can be seen as the connection between two texts when one text influences another, either thematically, through specific vocabulary, or through other some other relationship. Instances of intertextuality appear throughout literature; Virgil borrowed from Homer, and Dante in turn referred to both.[4] A more recent example of intertextuality in pop culture could be West Side Story, which heavily borrows from Romeo and Juliet.

In some instances, authors utilize a form of intertextuality by quoting another person (with or without citing a source). For example, in a general conference address, President Dieter F. Uchtdorf said, “Our second key relationship is with our families. Since ‘no other success can compensate for failure’ here, we must place high priority on our families.”[5] This statement provides a readily recognizable example of intertextuality. Although President Uchtdorf did not verbally cite a source here, many Latter-day Saints familiar with President David O. McKay’s teachings would have recognized that President Uchtdorf had just woven in a familiar statement with his own. In instances such as this one, authors may specifically create textual connections they want readers to notice. In other instances, an allusion could happen unintentionally when one author subconsciously borrows ideas from another.

Intertextuality can be a valuable approach to studying scripture; indeed, over the past decades many researchers have worked to find intertextual connections between the Old and New Testaments. This has great value, for when we identify Old Testament text in the New Testament, it not only gives us insight into the message of the New Testament author but also may provide us additional interpretations of the Old Testament passage. In many instances it appears that New Testament authors intentionally use Old Testament texts to bolster their arguments.

For example, Paul writes to the Corinthians seeking financial contributions to assist others in need: “For I mean not that other men be eased, and ye burdened: But by an equality, that now at this time your abundance may be a supply for their want, that their abundance also may be a supply for your want: that there may be equality: As it is written, He that had gathered much had nothing over; and he that had gathered little had no lack” (2 Corinthians 8:13–15).

The phrase "as it is written" is a quotation formula signaling to the reader that Paul is utilizing another text. Here Paul references Exodus 16:16–18: “Gather of [the manna] every man according to his eating, an omer for every man. . . . And the children of Israel did so, and gathered, some more, some less. And when they did mete it with an omer, he that gathered much had nothing over, and he that gathered little had no lack.”

When writing to those who had more than sufficient for their needs, Paul invoked the account of Israelites receiving manna in the wilderness. Paul asserted that God’s provision of manna ensured that everyone had enough, regardless of how much he or she had gathered. Commenting on the passage, Peter Balla writes, “[Paul] finds a text in scripture that can strengthen his argument that the Corinthians should support the poor in Jerusalem. In the original setting the phrases ‘to abound’ and ‘to lack’ referred to the individuals in Israel: each person had the right amount for himself or herself. . . . Although some people had gathered more than others, they had no surplus because they needed just that much. . . . In the Corinthian context the apostle argues that at a certain time God provides some members of the church with more so that they may help those who have less at that time.”[6] When we understand the context of Paul’s quotation, his argument becomes much stronger.[7]

This instance of intertextuality is relatively easy to identify, since it begins with a quotation formula. However, many textual connections are not so clearly marked. For example, John 1:1 states, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” (John 1:1). Nothing in the verse signals a textual connection; however, a careful reader may remember the first words of Genesis: “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth” (Genesis 1:1). By using the phrase “in the beginning,” the author of the Gospel of John communicates to readers that Christ’s ministry did not begin with his baptism; rather, the Savior has always existed and was instrumental in the creation of all things (see John 1:3).[8]

Similar types of textual connections—including both those with quotation formulas and those with more subtle allusions—appear in the Book of Mormon. This intertextuality provides a harmony among distinctive Book of Mormon voices. As we will see in the following chapters, individuals in the Book of Mormon have unique ways of interweaving their words with others. But to determine whether such textual connections are more likely intentional or coincidental, we must discover and examine shared text among speakers. Indeed, one of the difficulties in uncovering intentional intertextual connections is discerning whether one author was in fact quoting from another or whether the apparent quotation could more feasibly be explained in a different way. In the case of Paul quoting Exodus, the reference to Exodus is relatively recognizable. In other instances, it may not be clear if a later prophet intended to quote a previous prophet or if the textual connection is simply coincidental. Biblical scholars have debated criteria for validating proposed allusions, a subject to which I now turn.

Criteria for Determining Allusions

Having criteria to determine whether two passages are related to each other is important because “little or no consensus has emerged regarding what distinguishes a quotation from a mere verbal coincidence or vague reminiscence or which criteria are most useful for correctly identifying, explaining the origin of, and assessing the significance of literary borrowing.”[9]

It is understandable that scholars disagree about what constitutes allusions. Over a century ago Robert Baker Girdlestone cautioned, “We must be on our guard against mistaking resemblances for references. Some expressions may have been common property to several Hebrew writers; they may have almost become idioms in the language; and we cannot say that the writers borrowed them from one another.”[10] For example, in the Book of Mormon the phrase “lifted up in . . . pride” appears seventeen times. While there may be intentional textual connections in the various places where this phrase occurs, it is also possible that was simply a commonly employed phrase.

Lincoln Blumell points out, “With the aid of electronic databases and search engines where a word, root of a word, or even a short phrase, can be readily searched across a huge corpus, if one is willing to look hard enough, they can usually find numerous scriptural echoes and reminiscences. However, the obvious problem with this is that just because one can find a rare word or a distinct [scriptural] phrase . . . , it does not automatically guarantee the author . . . was necessarily echoing or reminiscing that passage.”[11] The term parallelomania[12] has been employed to describe having such a broad standard for parallels that the so-called parallels become meaningless, and some textual connections may not be as significant as they initially seem.[13]

Some parallels are simply stronger than others. As biblical scholar Richard B. Hays states, “Quotation, allusion, and echo may be seen as points along a spectrum of intertextual reference, moving from the explicit to the subliminal. As we move farther away from overt citation, the source recedes into the discursive distance, the intertextual relations become less determinate, and the demand placed on the reader’s listening power grows greater. As we near the vanishing point of the echo, it inevitably becomes difficult to decide whether we are really hearing an echo at all, or whether we are only conjuring things out of the murmurings of our own imaginations.”[14] Thus, it is important to carefully analyze similar phrases to determine the likelihood that an author is deliberately alluding to another text.

To discern whether intentional intertextuality (rather than distant echo) exists in specific passages, some have developed criteria to use. For example, Hays wrote an influential book on intertextuality in the Bible. He proposed using the following seven criteria to distinguish between real and illusory allusions:

1. Availability. Was the proposed source of the echo available to the author and/or original readers?
2. Volume. The volume of an echo is determined primarily by the degree of explicit repetition of words or syntactical patterns, but other factors may also be relevant [such as] how distinctive or prominent is the precursor text within Scripture.
3. Recurrence. How often does [the author] elsewhere cite or allude to the same scriptural passage?
4. Thematic Coherence. How well does the alleged echo fit into the line of argument that [the author] is developing?
5. Historical Plausibility. Could [the author] have intended the alleged meaning effect?
6. History of Interpretation. Have other readers, both critical and pre-critical, heard the same echoes?
7. Satisfaction. With or without clear confirmation from the other criteria listed here, does the proposed reading make sense?[15]

While some debate continues to exist regarding specific scriptural passages, criteria like those proposed by Hays have helped scholars identify multiple instances of intertextuality between the Old and New Testaments. Speaking specifically of the writings of Paul, Hays states, “The Pauline quotations and allusions have been cataloged, their introductory formulas classified, their relation to various Old Testament text-traditions examined, their exegetical methods compared to the methods of other interpreters within ancient Christianity and Judaism. The achievements of such inquiries are by no means to be disparaged: they have, as it were, unpacked and laid out the pieces of the puzzle.”[16]

While this may be true of Pauline allusions and other intertestamental connections, the textual connections between the words of various Book of Mormon speakers remain to be completely investigated in this manner. The Book of Mormon is rich in intertextuality, full of connections to the Bible, and replete with internal references to itself. Although the focus in this and the following chapters is to describe intertextual connections within the Book of Mormon (perhaps these could be called intratextual connections), let us first briefly consider intertextual links between the Book of Mormon and the Bible.[17]

Intertextuality between the Book of Mormon and the Bible

The Book of Mormon is textually connected to the Bible. Large sections of Isaiah appear in the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 12–24; compare Isaiah 2–12), and a version of the Sermon on the Mount is also present (3 Nephi 12–14; compare Matthew 5–7). Several smaller biblical allusions appear throughout the Book of Mormon. Christ utilizes the words of both Micah and Malachi. Nephi, Abinadi, and others refer to the words of Moses. The existence of these connections can at times help us gain more meaning from the text. Although some of these textual connections are easily identifiable, others are much more subtle.

Consider the following example. Textual evidence suggests that Jacob, in constructing his book, utilized Psalm 95. In Jacob 1:7 he records, “Wherefore we labored diligently among our people, that we might persuade them to come unto Christ, and partake of the goodness of God, that they might enter into his rest, lest by any means he should swear in his wrath they should not enter in, as in the provocation in the days of temptation while the children of Israel were in the wilderness.” The italicized portions of this verse bear a clear connection to Psalm 95:8–11, which states, “Harden not your heart, as in the provocation, and as in the day of temptation in the wilderness. . . . Forty years long was I grieved with this generation . . . unto whom I sware in my wrath that they should not enter into my rest.”

This shared text cannot be coincidental. This is doubly the case when we see another allusion to Psalm 95 toward the end of Jacob’s record. In Jacob 6:6 he exhorts, “Yea, today, if ye will hear his voice, harden not your hearts; for why will ye die?” These words directly echo Psalm 95:7–8: “To day if ye will hear his voice, harden not your heart.”[18] Thus Jacob alludes to Psalm 95 at the beginning of his book (Jacob 1:7) and as he nears the end of it (Jacob 6:6).[19]

Psalm 95 is an important psalm of worship. It is a hymn of praise connected with the Feast of Tabernacles, one of the three major Mosaic festivals. As such, it certainly could predate the Babylonian exile and have been in common use before Lehi’s day.[20] In context, Psalm 95:7–8 refers to an event in which the Israelites, while camped at Meribah, complained against Moses, leading Moses to miraculously provide water from a rock (see Exodus 17:1–7 and Numbers 20:1–13). Commenting on the connection between Psalm 95 and Exodus 17, scholar Catherine Thomas writes, “The Provocation refers not only to the specific incident at Meribah but to a persistent behavior of the children of Israel that greatly reduced their spiritual knowledge. . . . After a succession of provocations, the Israelites in time rejected and lost the knowledge of . . . the great plan of grace inherent in the doctrine of the Father and the Son.”[21]

By invoking Psalm 95, Jacob could be reminding us of a story of hardened hearts during the Exodus; he invites us to learn from them, harden not our hearts, and come unto Christ. Jacob wants us to choose today which path we will take. It may be that Jacob saw in the people of his day many similarities to the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness. By echoing Psalm 95, Jacob ultimately encourages them (and us) to “enter into [God’s] rest” and “obtain eternal life” (Jacob 1:7; 6:11). Seeing the connections between Jacob’s writing and Psalm 95 can help us better understand Jacob’s words and message.[22] Many other instances of intertextuality exist between the Bible and the Book of Mormon. For example, Grant Hardy notes several textual connections between Abinadi and Moses, such as the fact that both read the Ten Commandments, both shine brightly, and both speak to blasphemous rulers who say, “Who is the Lord?” (Exodus 5:2; Mosiah 11:27).[23]

Examples of Textual Connections within the Book of Mormon

But what of intertextuality within the Book of Mormon? The possibility that Book of Mormon prophets quote each other should not be surprising. In essence, the only requirement for one person to be able to quote from another is access to the other person’s words. The text of the Book of Mormon makes it clear that individuals who lived in later time periods had access to the teachings of earlier prophets. Nephi explicitly intended for his words to go forth among his people, stating that the small plates “should be kept for the instruction of my people, who should possess the land” (1 Nephi 19:3). Nephi clearly wanted the small plates to remain in circulation. Amaleki expressed his plan to accomplish that purpose by giving the small plates to King Benjamin (see Omni 1:25). Benjamin passed on the records to Mosiah₂ (see Mosiah 1:16), and Mosiah₂ in turn gave “all the records” in his possession to Alma (Mosiah 28:20). Although Mormon was apparently not aware of the small plates when he began his record (see Words of Mormon 1:3), it is not clear at what point this record might have disappeared from the view of recordkeepers.

King Benjamin also wanted his words to be known; he “caused that the words which he spake should be written and sent forth among those that were not under the sound of his voice, that they might also receive his words” (Mosiah 2:8). This was not the only sending forth of the written prophetic word. In Alma 63:12 Mormon tells us, “All those engravings which were in the possession of Helaman [these likely included the small plates, as well as the words of Alma, Amulek, Abinadi, King Benjamin, and others] were written and sent forth among the children of men throughout all the land.”

When preaching to the people of Ammonihah, Alma alluded to King Benjamin’s words, suggesting that the people of Ammonihah may have had access to the prophetic word of a previous generation.[24] In his address to the financially poor Zoramites, Alma clearly referred to Zenos, Zenock, and Moses, leading one to believe that even these individuals with lower socioeconomic status were familiar with teachings from the brass plates.[25] Helaman₂’s counsel to his sons Nephi and Lehi makes it plain that they had access to the works of previous prophets.[26] He says, “O remember, remember, my sons, the words which king Benjamin spake unto his people. . . . And remember also the words which Amulek spake unto Zeezrom, in the city of Ammonihah” (Helaman 5:9–10‎). It is noteworthy that Helaman expressly refers to Amulek, indicating that whatever records he had obtained specifically attributed the same words to Amulek that we now also have Amulek recorded as speaking (see Helaman 5:10; compare Alma 11:34, 37). Later textual evidence suggests that words from Alma, Amulek, and Zeezrom were circulated among the people generally. When speaking to a group of Lamanites and apostate Nephites, Aminadab said, “You must repent, and cry unto the voice, even until ye shall have faith in Christ, who was taught unto you by Alma, and Amulek, and Zeezrom [words which had been given some forty-five years previously]” (Helaman 5:41).[27]

Exploring intertwining voices within the Book of Mormon is a fruitful area of study. The fact that later Nephite prophets had access to the voices of earlier ones opens the possibility for intentional intertextual quotations and allusions within the Book of Mormon. While much work remains, researchers have already found several instances of intertextual allusions in the Book of Mormon. For example, John Welch points to close parallels between King Benjamin’s speech and many of Alma’s words:

In establishing the church of God in the first years of the reign of judges, Alma implemented many of the religious and social policies articulated by Benjamin. Alma required that all those who “had taken upon them the name of Christ” (Alma 1:19; compare Mosiah 5:9) should “impart of their substance” to the poor and the needy, “every man according to that which he had” (Alma 1:27; compare Mosiah 4:26); that no church leader should “[esteem] himself above his hearers” (Alma 1:26; compare Mosiah 2:26); that the names of all hardened transgressors “were blotted out” (Alma 1:24; compare Mosiah 5:11); that “every man receiveth wages of him whom he listeth to obey” (Alma 3:27; compare Mosiah 2:32); [and] that all should strive to retain “a remission of their sins” (Alma 4:14; compare Mosiah 4:12).[28]

These extensive connections between King Benjamin and Alma suggest the ongoing importance of King Benjamin’s final discourse. Another scholar who has uncovered multiple instances of intertextuality is Grant Hardy. For example, he identifies eight connections between Abinadi’s ministry and Alma and Amulek’s in Ammonihah. He also shows how Moroni extensively quotes from previous Book of Mormon authors in each of his farewells (Mormon 9, Ether 12, and Moroni 10). My favorite of Hardy’s intertexuality discoveries is what he terms “a verbal curtain call.”[29] Hardy shows that in Moroni’s final words Moroni alludes to the last words of Nephi, Mormon, Amaleki (the final author of the small plates), Lehi, Enos, and Jacob.

For example, in Moroni’s final farewell, he alludes to Nephi’s references to seeing readers at the bar of God (Moroni 10:27; compare 2 Nephi 33:11) and states that God will show modern readers that Moroni’s words are true (Moroni 10:28–29; compare 2 Nephi 33:11, 14). Additionally, he alludes to Amaleki and Mormon when he gives the exhortation to “come unto Christ, and lay hold upon every good gift” (Moroni 10:30; compare Omni 1:26; Moroni 7:19, 20, 25). Moroni alludes to some of Lehi’s final words when he says, “Awake, and arise from the dust” (Moroni 10:31; compare 2 Nephi 1:14, 23; see also Isaiah 52:1–2). In addition, in the last verse in the Book of Mormon, Moroni uses phrases such as “Now I bid unto all, farewell. I soon go to rest” and “before the pleasing bar of the great Jehovah”—echoing some of the final words written by Enos and Jacob (Moroni 10:34; compare Enos 1:27; Jacob 6:13).[30]

Hardy notes, “Moroni puts on a striking display of allusive virtuosity as he borrows from the farewell speeches of his predecessors.”[31] Seeing this pattern of quotations—Moroni crafting his last words from quotations of the last words of earlier prophets—helps us see Moroni as a careful writer, an author who thought carefully about his last words and how he could maximize their impact. It also demonstrates a literary beauty that we might miss if we were not attuned to how Moroni is using different individual voices that appear in the Book of Mormon.

Notwithstanding the many examples of intertextuality that have been discovered and explained by scholars to date, much more remains to be uncovered. In contrast to the many books exclusively devoted to textual allusions between the Old and New Testaments, researchers have written relatively little regarding textual relationships within the Book of Mormon. Perhaps one reason this is the case is that the Book of Mormon presents some unique challenges in terms of uncovering textual allusions.

Unique Considerations of Intertextuality in the Book of Mormon

In addition to the general question of what constitutes a true allusion (discussed above), there are at least three specific issues that we must address when seeking to identify textual allusions within the Book of Mormon. These issues are as follows: (1) the potential for the brass plates as the original source for apparently intra–Book of Mormon citations, (2) parallels between Book of Mormon phrases and those appearing in the New Testament, and (3) allusions that may be exaggerated or obscured through the process of translation. Let us examine each of these issues in turn.

Do allusions come from the brass plates?

The brass plates were records that the early Book of Mormon peoples brought with them to the Americas from Jerusalem. From the context of the Book of Mormon, it appears that these brass plates were similar in some respects to the Old Testament (see 1 Nephi 13:23). In addition, the brass plates contained writings from prophets not mentioned in the Old Testament. The presence of an additional record such as the brass plates presents a problem when looking for textual connections within the Book of Mormon because we cannot be certain whether a proposed allusion from a later Book of Mormon prophet to an earlier one demonstrates a textual connection between the two speakers or whether both were referring to the brass plates.

Some quotations in the Book of Mormon clearly appear to be related to the brass plates, such as references to Isaiah. But it is not always clear if a quotation in the Book of Mormon comes from an earlier Book of Mormon prophet or another source. For example, Alma’s phrase “They had become carnal, sensual, and devilish” (Alma 42:10) seems to be an allusion to Abinadi’s statement regarding “all mankind becoming carnal, sensual, devilish” (Mosiah 16:3). The words carnal, sensual, and devilish do not appear in the Bible, and they appear in the Book of Mormon only in these two verses. However, it is possible that they occurred in the brass plates. Thus, while we can assert a textual connection between Abinadi and Alma, it’s technically possible that both are referring to Zenos or another author on the brass plates.[32]

The brass plates were passed from one prophet to another and could be the sources of many textual connections in the Book of Mormon.[33] Because we do not have access to the brass plates, it is ultimately impossible to tell whether a quote originates with a Book of Mormon speaker or the brass plates. Nevertheless, if two speakers in the Book of Mormon use similar phrases and these phrases do not appear in the Old Testament, the probability increases that one Book of Mormon prophet is referring to another, particularly when there are multiple textual allusions in quick succession.

Parallels with the New Testament

A second issue that must be addressed is what to do when Book of Mormon intertextuality takes place with phrases from the New Testament. Consider the following example: Abinadi states, “Even this mortal shall put on immortality, and this corruption shall put on incorruption, and shall be brought to stand before the bar of God, to be judged of him according to their works” (Mosiah 16:10)‎. This phrase is nearly identical to one Alma says while teaching the people of Zarahemla: “Do you . . . view this mortal body raised in immortality, and this corruption raised in incorruption, to stand before God to be judged according to the deeds which have been done in the mortal body?” (Alma 5:15).

There is an unmistakable connection between these verses. However, they are both similar to 1 Corinthians 15:53–54: “For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality. So when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory.” The question then arises: Are the connections in Alma 5:15 and Mosiah 16:10 between each other or the New Testament?

The presence of the New Testament in the Book of Mormon can be a stumbling block; some people have suggested that the Book of Mormon cannot be an ancient work because of its textual connections to the New Testament. Brigham Young University religion professors Nicholas J. Frederick and Joseph M. Spencer summarized responses to this criticism as follows:

The most traditional approach has been to argue (or at least to assume) that New Testament language appears in the Book of Mormon because that’s what was inscribed on the gold plates by its ancient authors. On this view, there’s no direct dependence of the Book of Mormon on the New Testament. The two have similar language because God reveals the same things from one generation to another. A slight variation on this view might be the idea that the ancient authors of the Book of Mormon were given, through divine experiences, to know the language of the New Testament and to use it in their writings. . . .

Another set of approaches . . . allow[s] for a looser notion of translation, suggesting that the English text might take certain liberties with the underlying gold-plates text. That is, these approaches take the Book of Mormon’s English text as introducing New Testament language into a text that wasn’t originally worded that way. . . . To translate needn’t be to produce a slavish reproduction of content in one language into another; it can also be to couch the content of the original in language and imagery more familiar to the target audience. . . . Those who embrace this looser notion of translation tend to see a variety of reasons for a less literal translation. New Testament language makes the Book of Mormon more intelligible to a latter-day (and largely Christian) audience. It also lends rhetorical authority to the Book of Mormon, allowing it to speak in the voice of authoritative scripture.[34]

Frederick and Spencer effectively argue that there are a variety of possible explanations for the presence of the New Testament text in the Book of Mormon. Several resources are available for those interested in further studies on this topic.[35] In this book, while I identify the connections to the New Testament when they appear, my focus is on the connections within the Book of Mormon.

In this case, in the Book of Mormon the words mortal, immortality, corruption, and incorruption appear together only in the words of Alma and Abinadi. Thus, even if New Testament language influenced the translation of the Book of Mormon, it did so very unevenly. Moreover, both Alma and Abinadi include the shared phraseology “stand before God to be judged,” which isn’t found in 1 Corinthians. In other words, the presence of New Testament phraseology does not explain why such phrases occurred only in those two instances in the Book of Mormon—clearly there is some relationship between the words of Alma and Abinadi.[36] In the following chapters, I focus on what we can learn from instances of shared text within the Book of Mormon, regardless of their potential connection with the New Testament.

The translation process

The Book of Mormon is unique in that it is both an abridged and a translated work. Thus it can be difficult to determine if minor textual similarities (or differences) are because of Mormon’s abridgment, a result of Joseph Smith’s translation, or part of the text from an original writer. For example, are the textual connections between Samuel the Lamanite and Alma the result of Samuel’s study of Alma’s words, the two both receiving similar inspiration, Mormon’s careful editing, or some other source? While this and similar questions cannot be fully answered, this should not detract from the importance of the fact that the textual connections exist and exploring how they might be related.

Perhaps the more important issue is determining whether phrases are sufficiently similar to suggest a clear connection. For example, Mosiah 4:6 and Mosiah 10:19 both speak of a person or people “put[ting]” “trust in the Lord.” These are the only instances in the Book of Mormon in which these specific phrases (including their variants) appear in the same verse. However, similar phrases speaking of “putting [your] trust in God” appear four times in the Book of Mormon (Mosiah 7:19; Alma 36:3; 38:5; 57:27). More instances occur of “putting [your] trust in him” (Mosiah 7:33; 23:22; 29:20; Alma 36:27; 61:13; Helaman 12:1). Are these different passages related to one another, or are they simply common ways of expressing an important way of living? To answer questions such as this one, let us return to the subject of identifying allusions.

Guiding Principles for Finding Allusions in the Book of Mormon

As described previously, Hays and others have set forth criteria for finding allusions within specific contexts of intertextuality. Given the unique considerations of intertextuality in the Book of Mormon described previously, I believe that a similar set of guidelines can be employed for determining the likelihood that one Book of Mormon passage is related to another.[37] Throughout the rest of the chapters in this book, I will implicitly draw on the following four criteria in determining whether intertextual allusions within the Book of Mormon are in fact intentional:

1. Source. The following questions should be satisfactorily answered to determine if one prophet could be legitimately construed as using another source: Does it seem plausible that a later author could have had access to the purported source? Is there another source that may be a more likely candidate for the allusion (either from the brass plates or a different Book of Mormon prophet)?
2. Uniqueness. This criterion addresses the extent to which phrases are unique. The more frequently phrases appear (both within the Book of Mormon and in scripture generally), the more difficult it is to establish that any two of those phrases are uniquely connected. Even if a phrase were to appear frequently in the Doctrine and Covenants (obviously not a source text for the Book of Mormon), this frequent appearance might indicate that the phrase was simply a part of Joseph Smith’s vocabulary. In the following chapters, tables will illustrate how frequently a phrase appears in scripture. The purpose of these tables is to show the extent to which a phrase appears to be unique to any two passages or speakers.[38]
3. Length. Length answers the question “How long is the proposed echo?” Longer identical phrases argue for stronger connections than shorter ones.
4. Context. This criterion addresses issues such as the following: Are the contexts in which the phrases are used similar? Are there words surrounding the phrases that indicate a connection? Is there a series of allusions in proximity? Affirmative answers to the foregoing questions would indicate an increased likelihood of intentional allusion.

Evaluating Proposed Connections Considering These Criteria

To see more detailed examples of how these criteria might be specifically applied, I next provide a series of proposed allusions and examine them based on the guidelines just presented. Dozens of examples could be provided; in the interest of brevity, I share only three.[39]

Darkest abyss and marvelous light of God

After an angel commands Alma and the sons of Mosiah to repent in Mosiah 27, Alma declares, “My soul hath been redeemed from the gall of bitterness and bonds of iniquity. I was in the darkest abyss; but now I behold the marvelous light of God” (Mosiah 27:29). Later, when Ammon (one of the sons of Mosiah) rejoices in the repentance of the Lamanites, he states, “Our brethren, the Lamanites, were in darkness, yea, even in the darkest abyss, but behold, how many of them are brought to behold the marvelous light of God!” (Alma 26:3). Ammon later mentions that he and his brethren had gone “forth in wrath, with mighty threatening to destroy [God’s] church” (Alma 26:18), which is a clear reference to the events of Mosiah 27.

Regarding source criteria, Alma and Ammon were contemporaries and could have been familiar with the other’s phraseology. An additional possibility is that Mormon, as the narrator telling both stories, could have put these words into the mouths of both Alma and Ammon to help readers draw comparisons between the two accounts. The phrases darkest abyss and marvelous light of God appear only in these two pericopes, arguing for their uniqueness.[40] At ten words, the phrase in the darkest abyss . . . behold the marvelous light of God indicates the possibility of a relationship. Regarding context, both Alma and Ammon are speaking of the change that comes from conversion, providing plausibility that this is a genuine connection that deserves to be explored. Perhaps this connection is an intentional rhetorical device meant to help readers see that individuals who were once in the darkest abyss can change their lives and help others behold the marvelous light of God. Whether it is an individual who has willfully rebelled or an entire people who have made wrong decisions based on the traditions they were taught, all can enter God’s marvelous light.

The blood of the saints

In 2 Nephi 26:3 Nephi prophesied that the day of Christ’s death will be “great and terrible . . . unto the wicked, for they shall perish . . . because they cast out the prophets, and the saints . . . ; wherefore the cry of the blood of the saints shall ascend up to God from the ground against them.” Nephi also wrote that “they that kill the prophets, and the saints, the depths of the earth shall swallow them up” (2 Nephi 26:5).

After Christ’s death, great destruction took place in the Americas, and the survivors heard Christ’s voice. Christ said, “The great city Moronihah have I covered with earth . . . to hide their iniquities . . . , that the blood of the prophets and the saints shall not come any more unto me against them” (3 Nephi 9:5).[41] In 3 Nephi 9:8 the Savior, speaking of several cities, stated, “All these have I caused to be sunk, and made hills and valleys in the places thereof; and the inhabitants thereof have I buried up in the depths of the earth.” Christ also explained that he destroyed people so “that the blood of the prophets and the saints . . . might not cry unto me from the ground against them” (3 Nephi 9:11).

Could the surviving Lehites have been familiar with Nephi’s words and thus recognized in Christ’s statement their fulfillment? This is one possibility and allows for the potential allusions to pass the source criterion. Perhaps by using Nephi’s words, Christ reminded the Nephites, as well as modern readers, that this destruction was a fulfillment of prophecy. He also may have been offering hope to the survivors that salvation through Christ, of which Nephi had prophesied, would also be extended.

At the same time, it is difficult to measure the extent to which the Lehites may have heard Christ’s words as echoes of Nephi’s writings. It is also possible that Mormon, having recently discovered or read Nephi’s record, adjusted the words of the Lord, however slightly, to create allusions for modern audiences—clearly showing that prophetic words are fulfilled.

Whether the allusions to Nephi come directly from Jesus Christ or are mediated through Mormon’s abridgment, this tight clustering of relatively lengthy phrases, combined with their rare use in scripture, provides satisfaction that the uniqueness and length criteria are met. These connections, along with others between Jesus Christ and Nephi, will be further explored in chapter 12.

That I might rid my garments

In prefacing his discourse on pride and chastity, Jacob says, “I, Jacob, according to the responsibility which I am under to God, to magnify mine office with soberness, and that I might rid my garments of your sins, I come up into the temple this day that I might declare unto you the word of God” (Jacob 2:2). King Benjamin similarly says, “I say unto you that I have caused that ye should assemble yourselves together that I might rid my garments of your blood, at this period of time when I am about to go down to my grave” (Mosiah 2:28).

In terms of the source criterion, it seems logical that King Benjamin, who had been given the small plates, would be familiar with and able to quote Jacob’s words. The specific phrase that I might rid my garments of your never appears elsewhere in scripture, and the shorter rid my/our/their garments appears four times in scriptures (Jacob 2:2; Mosiah 2:28; Mormon 9:35; and Doctrine and Covenants 61:34). While this suggests uniqueness and makes Jacob the earliest source, similar phrases exist elsewhere. For example, Jacob also speaks of taking off his garments and becoming rid of the blood of the people (see 2 Nephi 9:44), and in Acts 18:6 Paul “shook his raiment, and said unto them, Your blood be upon your own heads; I am clean: from henceforth I will go unto the Gentiles.” Thus, while the words rid and garment appear together in only five verses,[42] this repeated usage possibly represents a traditional idea rather than deliberate borrowing.

As an eight-word phrase, "that I might rid my garments of your" is likely long enough to satisfy the length criterion, although several of the words are not significant. In terms of context, both Jacob and King Benjamin use the phrase in stating one of their purposes of their addresses. In addition, King Benjamin uses several other phrases from Jacob, further increasing the possibility that King Benjamin is deliberately drawing on Jacob. Nevertheless, this is a weaker allusion, and although the phrase "that I might rid my garments of your" could potentially pass all four of these criteria, it is by no means certain that King Benjamin is intentionally alluding to Jacob’s words (for more details on this phrase and other connections between Jacob and King Benjamin, see chapter 7).

Therefore, What?

In this chapter we’ve explored several issues relating to intertextuality in the Book of Mormon. Developing a comprehensive list of Book of Mormon intertextuality is challenging because, as Hays states, “Sometimes the echo will be so loud that only the dullest or most ignorant reader could miss it; other times there will be room for serious differences of opinion about whether a particular phrase should be heard as an echo of a prior text.”[43] Nevertheless, the difficulty of the task should not dissuade us from pressing forward with the work of identifying and analyzing Book of Mormon intertextuality.

To that end, I have proposed criteria that could be used to evaluate the extent to which proposed textual connections could be intentional and have given examples of how these criteria could be utilized. In the following chapters I will give specific, extended examples of how the different individuals in the Book of Mormon use the distinctive voices of their prophetic predecessors.

When we read the Book of Mormon, we can use a variety of lenses. For example, President Russell M. Nelson invited Church members to read the Book of Mormon and identify references to Jesus Christ.[44] President Ezra Taft Benson spoke of how the Book of Mormon exposes the enemies of Christ.[45] If we read the Book of Mormon specifically with the lens of identifying references to Jesus Christ, we will find different things than if we study its pages looking for the tactics of those who oppose Christ. Using a different lens in our study can help us find additional insights.

For me, identifying intertextuality has been a helpful lens in increasing my understanding and testimony of the Book of Mormon. As I will describe in the following chapters, seeing how Alma used the words of Lehi and Abinadi or learning more about how Jacob’s words were employed by later prophets has not only been intellectually stimulating but has also illuminated spiritual lessons I would have otherwise missed. Identifying and examining intertextuality can show us how prophets carefully studied the words of their predecessors, which can motivate us to deepen our own studies. As we now turn to closely examining how Book of Mormon prophets utilize the words of their predecessors in their teaching, we can learn much about how we use scripture as we teach others.

Notes

[1] The Complete Words of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 8, Letters and Social Aims (New York: W. H. Wise, 1920 [1875]), 178, cited in Richard L. Schultz, The Search for Quotation: Verbal Parallels in the Prophets (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 9.

[2] Roland Barthes, “From Work to Text,” in The Novel: An Anthropology of Criticism and Theory, 1900–2000, ed. Dorothy J. Hale (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 238.

[3] See Julia Kristeva, Semeiotike: Recherches pour une sémanalyse (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1969).

[4] See Michael Dunne, Intertextual Encounters in American Fiction, Film, and Popular Culture (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 2001), 19.

[5] Dieter F. Uchtdorf, “Of Things that Matter Most,” Ensign, November 2010, 21. President Uchtdorf was referring to the phrase “No other success can compensate for failure in the home.” While this statement has often been attributed to President McKay, he was quoting from another source (more intertextuality!). See J. E. McCulloch, Home: The Savior of Civilization (1924), 42; and David O. McKay, in Conference Report, April 1935, 116.

[6] Peter Balla, “2 Corinthians,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic: 2007), 775.

[7] For another biblical example, compare Luke 23:46 with Psalm 31:5. The context of Christ’s final words illustrates the redemptive powers of God, powers which Christ was about to make more fully manifest.

[8] Andreas J. Köstenberger writes that this textual connection “locates Jesus’ existence in eternity past with God and sets the stage for John’s lofty Christology.” Andreas J. Köstenberger, “John,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 421.

[9] Schultz, Search for Quotation, 18.

[10] Robert Baker Girdlestone, The Foundations of the Bible: Studies in Old Testament Criticism (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1890), 50, cited in Schultz, Search for Quotation, 25.

[11] Lincoln H. Blumell, Lettered Christians: Christians, Letters, and Late Antique Oxyrhynchus (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 220.

[12] Samuel Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” Journal of Biblical Literature 81, no. 1 (1962): 1–13.

[13] See Benjamin L. McGuire, “Finding Parallels: Some Cautions and Criticisms,” parts 1 and 2, Interpreter: A Journal of Latter-day Saint Faith and Scholarship 5 (2013): 1–104, https://journal.interpreterfoundation.org/finding-parallels-some-cautions-and-criticisms-part-one/, https://journal.interpreterfoundation.org/finding-parallels-some-cautions-and-criticisms-part-two/.

[14] Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), 23.

[15] Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 29–31. Shortly before Hays published this book, Noel B. Reynolds set forth similar criteria in “The Brass Plates Version of Genesis,” in By Study and Also by Faith, ed. John M. Lundquist and Stephen D. Ricks (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1990), 2:138.

[16] Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 9.

[17] The volume They Shall Grow Together: The Bible in the Book of Mormon, ed. Charles Swift and Nicholas J. Frederick (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2022), contains several extended examinations of intertextuality between the Bible and the Book of Mormon. See also Nicholas J. Frederick, “The Bible and the Book of Mormon: A Review of Literature,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 28, no. 1 (2019): 205–36.

[18] Hebrews chapters 3 and 4 and Alma 12:35 also contain extensive references to Psalm 95. Although an extended discussion of these texts is beyond the scope of this chapter, Peter E. Enns discusses the relationship between Psalm 95 and Hebrews 3:1–4:13; see Peter E. Enns, “Creation and Re-creation: Psalm 95 and Its Interpretation in Hebrews 3:1–4:13,” Westminster Theological Journal 55 (1993): 255–80.

[19] While Jacob’s record extends into chapter 7, chapter 6 clearly represents a conclusion of sorts (see Jacob 6:12–13).

[20] For a discussion on the dating of Psalm 95, see Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51–100, Word Biblical Commentary 20 (Dallas: Word Books, 1990).

[21] M. Catherine Thomas, “The Provocation in the Wilderness and the Rejection of Grace,” in Sperry Symposium Classics: The Old Testament, ed. Paul Y. Hoskisson (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2005), 164–76.

[22] For more insight on this passage, see John Hilton III, “Old Testament Psalms in the Book of Mormon,” in Ascending the Mountain of the Lord: Temple, Praise, and Worship in the Old Testament, ed. David R. Seely, Jeffrey R. Chadwick, and Matthew J. Grey (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, 2013), 291–311.

[23] See Hardy, Understanding the Book of Mormon: A Reader’s Guide (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 157–60. As another proposed example of intertexuality between the Book of Mormon and the Old Testament, Ben McGuire suggests textual connections between Nephi slaying Laban and David killing Goliath. See Ben McGuire, “Nephi and Goliath: A Case Study of Literary Allusion in the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 18, no. 1 (2009): 16–31.

[24] For example, see Alma 13:28; compare Mosiah 3:19.

[25] See Alma 33:3–20. The brass plates were original records that Lehi’s family took with them on their journey to the promised land.

[26] John W. Welch writes, “Nephi and Lehi likely used the precise words of King Benjamin in their preaching, just as their father had quoted to them some of the words of King Benjamin: ‘Remember that there is no other way nor means whereby man can be saved, only through the atoning blood of Jesus Christ’ (Helaman 5:9; compare Mosiah 3:18; 4:8).” John W. Welch, “Textual Consistency,” in Reexploring the Book of Mormon, ed. John W. Welch (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book; Provo, UT : FARMS, 1992), 22–23. See also the relationship between Alma 36:22 and 1 Nephi 1:8, discussed in that same chapter.

[27] The fact that these words had been spoken several decades previously indicates a reliance on oral or written traditions as opposed to those in Helaman 5 having heard the words firsthand. It is also clear that a wide variety of people had access to the words on the brass plates, including both the wealthy priests of King Noah and the poor Zoramites (see Mosiah 12:20–21 and Alma 33:15). However, the fact that these words were circulated does not necessarily indicate widespread literacy among the Nephites. It is possible that the words were given to literate individuals in the community who then read them to others. Either way, it suggests many people in the Book of Mormon were familiar with the teachings of earlier Nephite prophets.

[28] John W. Welch, “Benjamin, the Man: His Place in Nephite History,” in King Benjamin’s Speech: “That Ye May Learn Wisdom,” ed. John W. Welch and Stephen D. Ricks (Provo, UT: FARMS, 1998), 44.

[29] Hardy, Understanding the Book of Mormon, 262.

[30] These allusions are explained in greater depth in Hardy, Understanding the Book of Mormon, 262–63.

[31] Hardy, Understanding the Book of Mormon, 263.

[32] The words carnal, sensual, and devilish do collocate in the Book of Moses. Reynolds argues that their appearance in the Book of Mormon “demands a source in a prominent text or ritual. The book of Moses provides both.” Reynolds, “The Brass Plates Version of Genesis.”

[33] The brass plates are explicitly mentioned as being passed from King Benjamin to Mosiah₂ (Mosiah 1:16), from Mosiah₂ to Alma₂ (Mosiah 28:20), from Alma₂ to Helaman₂ (Alma 37:3), and from Nephi₂ to Nephi₃ (3 Nephi 1:2). Mormon also demonstrates an awareness of what was written on the brass plates (3 Nephi 10:17).

[34] Nicholas J. Frederick and Joseph M. Spencer, “The Book of Mormon and the Academy,” Religious Educator 21, no. 2 (2020): 183–84. When commenting on the similarities in language between Moroni 7:45 and 1 Corinthians 13:4–7, Elder Jeffrey R. Holland wrote, “The fact that Paul uses comparable language without having the benefit of Mormon and Moroni’s text suggests the possibility of an ancient source available to both Book of Mormon and New Testament writers. It may also simply be another evidence that the Holy Ghost can reveal a truth in essentially the same words to more than one person.” Jeffrey R. Holland, Christ and the New Covenant: The Messianic Message of the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1997), 413.

[35] Nicholas J. Frederick has a large body of work examining the relationship between the New Testament and the Book of Mormon. For example, see his articles “The Book of Mormon and Its Redaction of the King James New Testament: A Further Evaluation of the Interaction between the New Testament and the Book of Mormon,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 27 (2018): 44–87; and “Finding Meaning(s) in How the Book of Mormon Uses the New Testament,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 30 (2021): 1–35.

[36] See Hardy, Understanding the Book of Mormon, 302.

[37] These criteria are based on the studies by Hays and Reynolds mentioned previously. In addition, Nicholas J. Frederick proposes similar criteria in his article “Evaluating the Interaction between the New Testament and the Book of Mormon: A Proposed Methodology,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 24 (2015): 1–30.

[38] In speaking of this concept, Hardy writes, “The possibility of intentionality increases when [connecting phrases occur only in two specific passages].” Hardy, Understanding the Book of Mormon, 251.

[39] Specific examples of parallel phrases are found throughout the remainder of this book. I will not typically include a written explanation of how these matching phrases meet the criteria explained in this section, for as Richard Hays wrote, “To run explicitly through this series of criteria for each of the texts that I treat would be wearisome.” Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 32. Nevertheless, I used these criteria in determining whether the intertextual connections I present appear to be significant.

[40] In fact, the words abyss and light appear together only in these two verses.

[41] Royal Skousen’s The Book of Mormon: The Earliest Text (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009) states, “the blood of the prophets and of the saints.”

[42] See 2 Nephi 9:44; Jacob 2:2; Mosiah 2:28; Mormon 9:35; and Doctrine and Covenants 61:34.

[43] Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 29.

[44] See Russell M. Nelson, “Sisters’ Participation in the Gathering of Israel,” Ensign, November 2018, 69–70.

[45] See Ezra Taft Benson, “The Book of Mormon Is the Word of God,” Ensign, January 1988, 3.